Argument+Rhetoric

Argument Rhetoric includes fallacies, appeals and other vocabulary associated with this type of rhetoric.


 * Here's what you need to know for the December exam:**
 * abstraction (specific and general somtimes called abstract generalization) - to abstract away from the properties of the individual arguments to focus instead on attack relation between arguments (?Sophie Lin)
 * ad hominem-Literally “to the man". This is an attack on the person rather than on the person's ideas. A fallacy that attacks the person rather than dealing with the real issue in dispute. (HoiChi Yeung)
 * anecdote (as a technique/device) - as long as the anecdote is believable and engaging to the audience, a personal experience can add authority to the argument. It may also add a human and personable dimension to the argument, which if employed correctly can appeal to the audience's emotions and provoke empathetical reactions. (Chris Germain)
 * anticipate objections- opposing arguments are anticipated and countered; makes writing seem more balanced and fair (Victor Kung)
 * appeal to authority- Presenting quotes or statements from an authority or a scholar. It gives readers a sense of trust to the author and reinforces the author's ideas. (Abe Yoon)
 * appeal to emotion- Pathos; appealing to readers' emotions and feelings; sometimes used as ploys to win reader's over (ads that promise attractive friends only if you have certain designer clothes); can make argument even stronger (using a picture to frighten people from drinking and driving); emotions that can arise: anger, sympathy, fear, envy, joy, love; can use images to appeal to emotion, also can use descriptive writing and other rhetorical techniques to appeal to the reader's emotions. (Erika Beebe)
 * appeal to ethics - appealing to the audience's sense of ethics and moral judgement. The credibility of your claims is directly related to your own sense of moral character. (Forrest Zhao) **Note an author can also build up his OWN moral character, indirectly claiming you should trust him because he is a 'good' person (Mrs. Rosen)**
 * appeal to logic- Logos; appealing to the reader's sense of logic by evoking a cognitive, rational response. (Forrest Zhao) Statistics, referencing a study, 'unpacking' the reasoning behind, or reasonableness of, an argument are all appeals to logic (Mrs. Rosen)
 * contrast / challenge / refute / rebut(tal) - Contrast/Challenge: setting different points in opposition in order to emphasize their differences, Refute/Rebut(tal): an argument technique in which opposing arguments are anticipated and then countered. Gives your own argument more credibility by hitting down and showing the flaws in the opposing arguments (Amie George). **It also makes the author sound credible and in control that s/he KNOWS the other side of the argument! (Mrs. Rosen)**
 * creating an impression through description- describing a scene or an event in detail can be used to manipulate audience feelings. Often description appeals to emotions; for example, when Orwell describes the scene of the hanging with somber and gloomy words (Laura Chen)
 * deductive reasoning -The method of argument in which specific statements and conclusions are drawn from general principals: movement from the general to the specific, (in contrast to inductive reasoning). Lily Feng
 * direct quotation (as a technique/advice) - an exact, word-for-word quotation; best when brief and telling, or clearly focused on a point made (Donna Ni) Often used in appeals to logic (Mrs. Rosen)
 * equivocation - the misleading use of a word with more than one meaning; using a word more than one way in the same argument, ex. It is well known that the average family has 2.5 children (premise #1). Well, Jane's family is very average (premise #2), so they must have 2.5 children (conclusion). (Donna Ni) **Often used for humor -- as in deliberately misunderstanding the way a word is meant to be used (ie., Someone calls you for a reference for a lazy employee and asks 'Are you glad to give this recommendation?' and you answer 'Oh yes, I am VERY glad to give him a recommendation to leave this job and go to another'!) (Mrs. Rosen)**
 * factual information (as a technique/device)- Historically true information that cannot be argued. For example, //the dog had black fur.// This statement contains clear, without-a-doubt information. Factual information is used to provide support and/or background information for one's argument. (Emily Barns) Often used as an appeal to logic (Mrs. Rosen)
 * inductive reasoning -Reasoning from a specific case or cases and deriving a general rule: movement from specific to general, (in contrast to deductive reasoning). Example: All observed crows are black. Therefore all crows are black. (Jean Zhang)
 * rhetorical questions - A question when in context has an implied and obvious answer. This provokes the reader to think about the situation and come up with an answer by themselves. Example: He has never been in the government and does not know how to run a country. Would you really put your faith and trust in a man with no experience? (Vincent Qu) **Often used to give the reader no choice but to agree with the author (Mrs. Rosen)**
 * shift in point of view (as a technique/device) - usually marked by a change in tone or subject matter, the writer intentionally shows a change in position to emphasize how one argument (usually the second) is stronger than the first. (Remember the Rivers essay by Twain?) Sometimes, the desired emphasis is on the lack of an answer. (And the California one?)
 * support/evidence (including statistics and examples and case studies)- using facts, supporting data that an audience considers objectively verifiable, to add strength and plausibility to the argument. (Alicia Chen)
 * syllogistic reasoning - A form of deductive reasoning, in which a major premise is given a conclusion, and a minor premise is found beneath that major premise, so therefore the minor premise is identified by the same conclusion. "Since X is Y, and Z is Y, Z is X. " For example, all dogs are smart, and that is a dog, therefore it is smart. (Jessie Schroeder) Often contain fallacies, if the order or one of the premises are wrong - ie. fish live in water, that man is in the water, therefore he is a fish!. (Mrs. Rosen)

GRAMMAR also often plays into rhetoric and argument. Know the following grammatical terms for the December exam: > e.g: to sneeze, to jump, to cry, to look. [Joy]
 * periodic sentence- A long sentence in which the main clause is not completed until the end; usually a series of subordinate clauses come before main clause. Over the woodlands brown and bare,/ Over the harvest-fields forsaken,/ Silent and soft, and slow,/ Descends the snow. (Shannon Yeh) **The effect is often to create suspense (Mrs.Rosen)
 * compound subject- A sentence with more than one subject to one verb. Example: __Alison__ and __Jackie__ tackled their sister Jessie. (Jessie Liu)
 * subordinate clauses - a dependent clause that cannot stand on its own but contains a subject and a predicate; follows or is attached to an independent clause; makes the reader want to read on to finish the thought; example: //after she sneezed over the tuna salad,...// (Laura Chen)
 * infinitives - A sentence beginning with 'to' followed by the simple form of the verb. TO + VERB = infinitive.
 * compound-complex sentence - a sentence that includes at least 2 independent causes and one or more dependent causes. ex. __Because I am in Ap Language,__ //some people expect me to speak perfectly// and //other people expect me to write perfectly.// The independent causes are italicized and the dependent cause is underlined. (Amy Liu)
 * parallel syntax - a repetition of words, phrases or clauses to emphasize an important point. This is generally used in short segments in order to be direct, clear and concise. Generic example: I came, I saw, I conquered. (Tim Chen)
 * interrogative sentence- a sentence where questions are usually asked in order to obtain information (MJ)
 * declarative sentence- the most common form of sentence which makes a factual statement, doesn't reveal its tone (MJ)
 * run-on sentence- consists two independent clauses with nothing but a blank space between them (MJ)
 * comma splice- when a comma instad of a period or semi-colon is used to join, or splice, two independent sentences (MJ)